Labor Unions in Hospitals

Organizing and other labor union activity in the hospitals has drawn increasing attention for many years. The American Nurses Association (ANA) is the largest and oldest professional association of registered nurses in the USA (Martin, 2001). The ANA and state nurses associations are committed to the rights of registered nurses (RN), the largest group of health professionals. The ANA represents registered nurses through organizing and bargaining collectively. The ANA is definitely for creation of labor unions in hospitals (â€Å"Physicians and Unions: Implications for Registered Nurses†, 1998). This paper focuses on the development of these unions and outlines that union activity has an important role for nurses in addressing the benefits and salaries and in providing the appropriate care for patients. Labor Unions in Hospitals The leadership of formal nursing organizations historically reviewed labor unions and labor legislation with suspicion, if not with direct distaste. In the early of the 20th century, the American Nurses Association (ANA) did not consider the nursing discipline as a profession and its practitioners as professionals (D'Antonio, n.d.). On the contrary, practicing clinical nurses were somewhat more receptive to the idea of unions. The Nurses Associated Alumnae, founded in 1896, became the American Nurses Association in 1911, and nurses successfully lobbied for strict registration credentials. (â€Å"United American Nurses, AFL-CIO†, n.d.)   But the initial registration laws were voluntary (D'Antonio, n.d.).   Nurses joined together at the end of century to fight the lack of standardization among quickly development of nursing schools, hard working conditions and exploitation of nursing students. Nurses also sought a means to work together in a professional organization to establish a code of ethics, elevate nursing standards and promote the nurses interests. The first nurse staffing ratios were set by the Continental Congress during the Revolutionary War. The first permanent hospitals were established during that war—but it wasn't until 1872 that America could boast its first professionally trained nurse, Linda Richards. (â€Å"United American Nurses, AFL-CIO†, n.d.) During the early 20th century, nurses joined other workers looking for such benefits as an eight-hour workday and paid vacations. By the 1930s, ANA and state nurses associations were considering the question of unionization for nurses — a responsibility ANA confirmed in 1946. During the 1920s and 1930s many nurses left the private-duty labor market to work in hospitals (D'Antonio, n.d.) They saw that the professionalization rhetoric did not forward their fight to control the quality as well as the conditions of their day-to-day work. Gradually the unionization idea helped to some hospitals' nursing staffs to secure contracts that improved wages and hours worked. In the early 1940s state nurses' associations, without the support of the ANA that was opposed to formal organizing, began their own collective bargaining units (D'Antonio, n.d.).   But in 1946 the ANA formally sanctioned the idea of â€Å"professional† collective bargaining by its constituent state nurses' associations (D'Antonio, n.d.). In the post-World War II era nurses gained contract after contract.   Also in 1946 the ANA began the establishment of its Economic and General Welfare Program (â€Å"The Role of Collective Bargaining and Unions in Advancing the Profession of Nursing†, 1998). That decision was made because of some of the same problems that nurses and nursing continue to face and from a desire to use collective wisdom and strength to effect necessary change. Nurses were represented on a national level as well, including a decades-long battle against the 1947 Taft-Hartley Act that left private RNs without coverage under the National Labor Relations Act. Since then, collective bargaining has provided for significant accomplishments in salaries, benefits, and the professional practice of nurses. Historically, the nursing profession has worked to assure the public of   its commitment to their health needs through the establishment of professional licensure, practice standards and guidelines, and a code of ethics. Nurses have moved from the hospital into academe, research, long-term care, community and home health, school systems, the legislature, the military, law, and entrepreneurial enterprise.   Each avenue broadens professional perspective and adds value to the body of expertise and influence. By the late 1960s the trade union movement had again resurfaced as a strategy for professional autonomy and economic security (D'Antonio, n.d.). Unions such as Local 1199 of the Hospital Workers Union reorganized to allow nurses separate guilds; and strikes, although deeply regretted, were no longer unthinkable tactics (D'Antonio, n.d.). ; Labor unions representing nurses In the past 20 years, nurses in hospitals and health care agencies all over the world have unionized in an effort to achieve   appropriate wages and benefits based upon the skill level and risk involved in successfully fulfilling their job responsibilities (Klein, n.d.). There are some examples of active unions representing nurses. The UFCW (United Food and Commercial Workers Union)   represents nearly 40,000 working men and women in the health care profession in the North America who work in hospitals, nursing homes, medical and dental laboratories, and home health care (Klein, n.d.). Members include registered nurses, licensed practical nurses, unit assistants, certified nursing assistants, pharmacists, technicians, and caretakers. This union claims to have improved safety in the workplace and tackled a myriad of important issues, including restructurings, staffing levels, and compensation. Additionally, to being committed to workplace issues, the UFCW periodically sponsors training and education seminars to promote professional development among health care employees. The United Nurses of America represents 45,000 registered and licensed practical nurses and is an AFSCME affiliate (Klein, n.d.). AFSCME is the voice for 360,000 health care employees, 76,000 of whom are nurses   (Klein, n.d.).   For its members, AFSCME provides training programs, information on workplace violence, a health and safety newsletter and fact sheets, and updates on union actions. The ANA has also created the new United American Nurses (UAN) to strengthen collective bargaining states' efforts to retain and recruit members. Now, according to the ANA, 24 states or U.S. territories have collective bargaining for nurses; 29 do not (the total of 53 includes Guam, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the District of Columbia) (Hellinghausen, 1999).   Today's   UAN, the nation's largest union of staff RNs, began from the nurse unionization movement before World War II. (â€Å"United American Nurses, AFL-CIO†, n.d.) For more than 50 years, nurses, through their state nurses associations, have organized to advocate for fair wages, good working conditions and staffing levels that ensure patient safety. State nurses associations struggled for state measures to pick up the slack, and the 1974 health care amendments to the NLRA finally extended such protections. Amendments to the NLRA passed in 1983 extended Social Security coverage to non-profit workers. The United American Nurses' forerunner, the Institute of Constituent Member Collective Bargaining Programs, met for the first time in September 1990. Nurses' efforts through the Institute to find the solutions of workplace problems led to the organisation of a separate labor arm of ANA—the United American Nurses—in 1999. The UAN held its first National Labor Assembly in June 2000, as representatives of 100,000 nurses working under collective bargaining agreements elected Cheryl Johnson as the union's first president and Ann Converso as the union's first vice president. UAN affiliated with the AFL-CIO in 2001. With the addition of the UAN, the AFL-CIO represent now 1.2 million health care workers. (Martin, 2001) AFL-CIO unions bargain to provide health insurance for more than 40 million workers and family members –   accounting for one out of every four Americans with employment-based coverage. Johnson of the UAN said nurses are organizing into unions at an increased pace to gain a voice on the job and on behalf of quality patient care, and that giving nurses a voice can address the nationwide staffing crisis. Now the UAN has offered strike support on a national level to nurses on the picket line; provided media training, organizing assistance and collective bargaining help through the annual Labor Leader Institute; provided a massive and meticulous contract information database to state nurses associations and nurse leaders; and provided testimony to national leaders on patient care, staffing and other issues. Problems of nursing unions In fact, the American Nurses Association (ANA) is â€Å"wed† to organized labor and in some states, such as California and Michigan, the state Nurses Associations act as labor unions. (â€Å"Subject:Union Debate†, 2003) Most labor unions and Nurses' Associations claim that by organizing nurses, they can increase salaries, improve benefits and working conditions, and draw more nurses into the profession. It sounds plausible, but a union cannot address the real underlying problem: Money. Unions cannot produce revenue. They can only extract dollars from the healthcare system. Nurses' salaries and benefits are typically a hospital's greatest expense. A hospital's primary source of revenue is from reimbursement for patient services. While hospital operating costs have steadily gone up, reimbursement for patient services by Medicare, Medicaid, and insurance have not kept up with increased operating costs. In a February 13, 2003 Press Release by the American Hospital Association (AHA), entitled â€Å"Rising Demand, Increasing Costs of Caring Fuel Hospital Spending,† rising hospital cost is cited as one the primary drivers of an increase in hospitals' spending (â€Å"Subject: Union Debate†, 2003). While organized labor would lead to believe there is an increased need for unionization, their popularity has declined. In our nation's past history, organized labor played an important role in ensuring employee safety in the workplace. Currently, standards for employee safety have been established by Occupational Safety & Hazard Association (OSHA), Joint Commission for Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO), American Osteopathic Association (AOA), and other regulatory and accrediting bodies. Therefore, the need for unions has declined. Especially because recent changes in healthcare have subjected nurses to the effects of cost cutting, shuffled duties and reorganization, not to mention a chronic nursing shortage. Just 17% of the nation’s 2.2 million RNs belong to unions, and labor groups are looking to nursing to boost their dwindling ranks (Salcedo, n.d.). Two AFL-CIO affiliated unions actively pursuing nurses are the Service Employees International Union (SEIU) and the United Food and Commercial Workers Union (UFCW). There have been several instances of already formed collective bargaining units represented by the state nurses’ association switching to AFL-CIO affiliated unions. The American Nurses Association is reeling from the defections, including the defection of the 20,000 member CNA from the ANA in 1995 (Salcedo, n.d.). The California affiliate complained that the national leadership wasn’t doing enough to combat layoffs and staff shortages. (Jaklevic, 1999) Each state nurses association (except now California) is a member of the ANA. Each state nurses association is divided into two branches, a policy branch and a collective bargaining branch. The ANA is loudly protesting that â€Å"only nurses should represent nurses†, however, unions such as the SEIU charge that the associations are much more geared toward policy making and academic issues than collective bargaining. So, there is currently a critical shortage of nurses in USA. As long as nurses continue to feel disenfranchised, unprotected and under siege by doctors and health care administrators, interest in unions will grow stronger. Nurses organize not only to protect themselves, but also to protect the patients under their care, as evidenced by the recent activity regarding staffing levels and acuity systems. As an example, nurses, traditionally uninterested in the distractions of organized labor, are showing new eagerness to embrace unions (Seeman, 2000). But rather than objecting to pay scales or benefits plans, experts say, they are aiming more often at working conditions – depleted staffs, reduced time with patients, jobs that increasingly intrude upon their personal lives. Union membership is rising. The string of strikes in 1999 – 21 – was five times the number just four years earlier. (Seeman, 2000). More than 1,000 nurses are currently off the job. (Seeman, 2000). In California, union nurses have pushed lawmakers to guarantee more nurses on hospital floors. Hospital officials and insurers characterized the grievances as understandable but difficult to assuage. Current health care dynamics, they said, are testing the limits of all segments of the industry. What's unknown is whether nurses' relationship with labor will gain more momentum, and what long-term effects that might have on the nation's medical network. In the early part of the decade, with the price of health care soaring, managed care gained currency as a strategy to encourage competition and control costs. Insurers notified hospitals that reimbursements for medical treatments would decline. That prompted hospitals to squeeze budgets, including the money spent on nurses, who typically represent about a quarter of a hospital's work force. Hospital patients, meanwhile, grew sicker. Diseases that might have been fatal in an earlier age now left patients alive but ailing. Hospitals, under pressure to save money, discharged the less sick patients to focus on the direly ill. Technology made nursing much more complicated. In the past three years, about 15,000 nurses have become unionized by joining the Service Employees International Union. (Seeman, 2000).   About 105,000 nurses now belong. (Seeman, 2000). Another 170,00 belong to the American Nurses Association (Seeman, 2000).   Of those, about 60 percent use the organization for collective bargaining, according to the ANA. (Seeman, 2000). The overall numbers remain relatively small. Only about 15 percent of America's 2.6 million nurses are unionized, according to government and industry estimates. (Seeman, 2000). The BNA, echoing the nurses unions, said that walk-outs are more likely rooted in complaints about mandatory overtime, inadequate staffing and worries about patient care. In California, the new law supported by union nurses requires the state to set nurse-to-patient ratio standards for general, psychiatric and special hospitals. Hospitals will also be banned from requiring unlicensed employees from performing traditional nursing duties such as giving medicine or assessing treatment. The bill was signed in October by Gov. Gray Davis. Its requirements were phased in through 2002. (Seeman, 2000). Massachusetts, meanwhile, has become very important for union activity. The Massachusetts Nurses Association persuaded about 1,550 nurses at five hospitals to unionize in a 12-month period in 1997-'98, according to Judith Shindul-Rothschild, associate professor at the Boston College School of Nursing. (Seeman, 2000). So, administrators should try to understand nurses. If to give the possibility to nurses to effectively care for their patients, half the battle is won. Better healthcare would mean better labor management relationships. Conclusion So, the American Nurses Association (ANA), along with its constituent state nurses associations, has a decades-long responsibility to the right of registered nurses, the largest group of health professionals, to represent through organizing and bargaining collectively, in labor unions (â€Å"Physicians and Unions: Implications for Registered Nurses†, 1998). Such activity can play an important role in addressing wages as well as benefits, and the many employment conditions that have a direct bearing on nurses' ability to practice their profession and to grant the highest quality care for their patients. One of the most essential problems of unions is that there are no â€Å"guarantees† as to what will be included in a contract between management and the bargaining unit. Everything depends on contract negotiations. In other words, nurses may achieve less salary and/or benefits than before unionization. Still, unionism is only one of some options to ensure nurses' control over their practice. For nursing always has and always will need different organizing alternatives, whether through unions or specialized practice associations. References 1. D'Antonio, P.   (n.d.). Labor Unions: Nurses' Unions. Retrieved July 10, 2004, from   http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/women/html/wm_019610_nursesunions.htm 2. Hellinghausen, M. A. (1999, August 9) ANA's creation of labor entity worried the TNA. Retrieved July 10, 2004, from   http://www.nurseweek.com/features/99-8/tex-ana.html 3.Jaklevic, M. (1999, July 5). Associations join pro-union ranks’ Doc, nurse organizations want to give their members a stronger voice, new services. Modern Healthcare, 6. 4. Klein, J. A. (n.d.). Unions in Nursing. Retrieved July 10, 2004, from   http://www.nursingnetwork.com/union.htm 5. Martin, S. (2001, June 28) Largest Independent Nurses Union Votes to Affiliate with the AFL-CIO. Retrieved July 10, 2004, from   http://www.needlestick.org/pressrel/2001/uan_afl.htm 6. Physicians and Unions: Implications for Registered Nurses. (1998, September) Vol. 3, No. 9. Retrieved July 10, 2004, from   http://www.needlestick.org/readroom/nti/9809nti.htm  © 2004 The American Nurses Association, Inc. All Rights Reserved 7. Salcedo, K. (n.d.). Labor Unions and Nursing. Retrieved July 10, 2004, from   http://www.oppapers.com/print.php?id=33122;idenc=KxyHiuJa 8. Seeman, B. T. (2000) Working Conditions Drive Hospital Nurses Toward Unions. Newhouse News Service. Retrieved July 10, 2004, from   http://www.newhouse.com/archive/story1a041300.html 9. Subject: Union Debate. (2003, February 24) Nurses for Preservation of Professional Ethics (NPPE). Retrieved July 10, 2004, from   http://www.nppe.org/dialog34.htm 10.The Role of Collective Bargaining and Unions in Advancing the Profession of Nursing. (1998, February)   Vol. 3, No. 2. Retrieved July 10, 2004, from   http://www.needlestick.org/readroom/nti/9802nti.htm  © 2004 The American Nurses Association, Inc. All Rights Reserved United American Nurses, AFL-CIO. (n.d.) Retrieved July 10, 2004, from   http://nursingworld.org/uan/uanhistory.htm  © 2004 The United American Nurses and The

Legalizing Marijuana in the United States

I. Introduction Marijuana has been one of the most researched drugs in the history of pharmacology, and there is still considerable disagreement about its short-term and long-term effects. It was made an illicit drug in the United States, and many states have established harsh penalties for those convicted of possession of even small amounts. In the recent years, there has been a move toward decriminalization of marijuana (Bock, 2000). Marijuana is the name given in the United States to the drug produced from the hemp plant Cannabis sativa. The use of cannabis derivatives under such names as hashish, charas, bhang, and ganja is widespread throughout the world. The most active ingredient of the plant derivative is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The potency of this chemical is indicated by the fact that the average street sample of marijuana contains less than .5% THC (Weisheit, 1992). Some samples are considerably higher in THC content; thus, effects from the drug vary according to its quality, meaning its THC content.   The flowering parts of the plant contain the greatest amounts of THC (Goode, Pp. 567-575). These are usually dried and smoked, but they may be made into a drink somewhat like tea or blended into various cooking recipes. Somehow, marijuana has been used for some medications but it is not a valid ground to legalize it because it has negative effects to human bodies. Moreover, marijuana is still illegal in most places. Under federal law a person can be sentenced to up to one year in jail or a $5000 fine, or both, for simple possession of marijuana. Every year about 400,000 people are arrested for possession; about 80 percent are under age 26. II. Background A. Why should it be legalized? I personally agree that marijuana should be legalized because it is being used as legal medical therapy for several conditions. Careful studies have shown that it is effective in treating severe nausea in cancer patient undergoing chemotherapy. Older patients seem to respond less well than younger patients and complain more about side-effects, including feeling â€Å"stoned.† Researchers are continuing studies of marijuana’s possible usefulness in reducing pressure within the eye in glaucoma and in treating muscle spasticity (Earleywine, 2002). Most people use marijuana for the altered states it produces. These states are a little easier to control than those produced by other hallucinogenic drugs, unless the dosage is very high. At low to moderate dosages, hallucinations are not present. Instead, the person typically reports of calmness, increased sensory awareness, changes in space and time, and increased appetite, often with a craving for sweets. In addition, marijuana has been used for thousands of years, both as a medicine and for its intoxicating effects. In the form of tablets, marijuana is frequently prescribed to relieve the nausea and vomiting that often accompany chemotherapy. Moreover, most people use marijuana for the altered states it produces (Kreit, 2003).   These states are a little easier to control than those produced by other hallucinogenic drugs, unless the dosage is very high. At low to moderate dosages, hallucinations are not present. Instead, the person typically reports of calmness, increased sensory awareness, changes in space and time, and increased appetite, often with a craving for sweets. Many researchers too have concluded that smoking marijuana is no more dangerous, and perhaps even less so, than smoking cigarettes or using alcohol (Nadelmann, 2004). B. Pros and Cons Many perceptual and emotional effects follow marijuana smoking. Sensory experience may become more intense; smells are richer, textures feel more sensuous, objects are seen as more beautiful, sounds are more brilliant, and ideas flow more freely, although they may be disjointed. The person may experience an emotional high in which he or she feels joyful, tranquil, and happy. The effects of marijuana, however, are like those of other drugs; they very much depend on the person and the setting. Taken in a pleasant, relaxed social situation, marijuana can be quite unpleasant (Earleywine, pp. 123-156). Also, people who are naturally paranoid, suspicious, or aggressive may become more so under the influence of marijuana; the calm, better-adjusted users are more apt to experience a euphoric high. Its non-medical use, however, is illegal in the United States and most other countries. The penalties for possessing or using marijuana are, in many states, as severe as those imposed for the possession or use of much more potent drugs (Goode, 2000). Many argue that marijuana is no more harmful than cigarettes and liquor and should be legalized. The growing consensus of research on marijuana would suggest that it is not a safe drug. Indeed, it is doubtful whether any drug taken frequently by choice is advisable. The issue, though, is frequency of use. The literature on chronic users of marijuana—that is, people who use it a lot and over a long period of time—suggests rather strongly that there are serious deficits in some cognitive abilities such as memory. In addition, heavier users experience some undesirable personality changes, problems with sleep, deficits in psychomotor abilities such as driving, and changes in motivational levels that produce apathy and a lack of striving for achievement (Schlosser, 1994). Finally, there are a number of factors that influence the effect of a particular drug. There are factors associated with the drug, including its purity and the method of its purity and the method of its administration. Subject variables that are important include body weight, metabolic rate, whether or not the person has eaten, general state of health, and previous experience with the drug. In trying to predict how any one person will react to a drug, these factors, and many others, must be taken into account. But there is another important variable that plays a major role in drug reactions, and too often its effects are overlooked (Souder, 1998). That variable is the user’s expectation of the drug’s effect. Research has shown that the experience many drug users will have is not just a result of the physiological and biochemical changes produced by the drug, but also depends on how they think they are supposed to respond, or how they see others around them responding. These factors must also be considered when evaluating the reasons for altered states of consciousness through drug use. a.) Respiratory effects: Because marijuana smoke is deeply inhaled, retained in the lungs, and contains many of the same harmful ingredients as tobacco smoke, users show signs of impaired lung functioning when compared to nonusers. Like tobacco smoke, marijuana smoke contains carcinogenic agents, but since many pot smokers also tobacco, it has been hard to isolate marijuana’s impact on lung cancer. At this point, the evidence is merely suggestive (Earleywine, 2002). b.) Immune system:   Animal studies have suggested that marijuana can dampen the body’s resistance to disease, but no studies have been done to confirm or refute this danger in human beings (Earleywine, 2002). c.) Mental effects: While there is no evidence that marijuana causes the brain to shrink, it can lead to amotivational syndrome, which researchers define as a mental dulling, emotional blunting, and loss of drive and goal-directedness (Earleywine, 2002). III. Conclusion In conclusion, in the last decade marijuana dealing has become a multibillion-dollar business, ranking right behind General Motors and Exxon. Throughout the world, marijuana seems to be the fourth most popular mind-altering drug, following caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol. However, marijuana use seems to be on the decline nationally, especially among young people in high school and college. At low moderate doses, marijuana acts somewhat like alcohol and some tranquilizers, and like alcohol, the drug takes effects within minutes. Unlike alcohol, marijuana at low doses does not dull sensation but may cause slight alterations in perception, so that it is unsafe to drive a car for as long as 4 to 6 hours after a single joint. After the thorough studies, I therefore conclude that marijuana should be legalized because it has positive effects if properly used. On the other hand, the use of marijuana should be case to case basis and should only be used for medications. Reference: 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Belenko, S. R. (2001). Drugs and Drug Policy in America: A Documentary History. Greenwood Press. Westport, CT. Pp. 34-67. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bock, Alan W. (2000). Waiting to Inhale: The Politics of Medical Marijuana. Seven Locks. Santa Ana, CA. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Earleywine, M. (2002). Understanding Marijuana: A New Look at the Scientific Evidence. Oxford University Press. New York. Pp. 123-156. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Goode, E. (2000). Marijuana. Atherton. Chicago. Pp. 567-575. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kreit, Alex (2003). The Future of Medical Marijuana: Should the States Grow Their Own? University of Pennsylvania Law Review, Vol. 151 6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nadelmann, Ethan A. (2004). An End to Marijuana Prohibition: The Drive to Legalize Picks Up. National Review, Vol. 56 7.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Weisheit, Ralph A. (1992). Domestic Marijuana: A Neglected Industry. Greenwood Press. New York. 8.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Schlosser, Eric (1994). Marijuana and the Law. The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 274 9.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Souder, Mark (1998). Q: Is the Government's War against Marijuana Justified as Public Policy? Insight on the News, Vol. 13.   

Reflaction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

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Can we identify a compound that could be added to spermatozoa in vitro to enhance their motility - Assignment Example In particular, sperm motility is an important parameter because it indicates the integrity of the sperm tail and axoneme structures as well as the status of mitochondrial metabolic machinery (Saharkhiz et al., 2013). The World Health Organization uses a 40% cut off as the lower limit of progressive sperm motility. Although the exact cause of asthenospermia is not clear, there is growing evidence that it may arise due to hyper-viscosity of semen, varicoceles, autoimmunity of the sperm cell, and necrospermia resulting from immotile cilia (Kartagener) syndrome (Saharkhiz et al., 2013). Overall, reduced sperm motility indicates epididymal or testicular failure that can be caused by various factors. Currently, treatment of male infertility has focused mainly on the traditional in vitro fertilization (IVF) approach and newer interventions such as micro-epididymal sperm aspirations and microsurgical fertilization. However, these techniques are uncommon in andrological practice. Current research efforts in this area focus on the use of chemical stimulation of spermatozoa. A number of chemicals can stimulate sperm motility including the addition of compounds known to exhibit phosphodiesterase inhibition (PDEI) activity to enhance sperm motility in vitro without compromising sperm morphology and function. PDEIs are a class of related compounds such as pentoxifylline (PTX) that selectively catalyze the hydrolysis of 3’ phosphate bond in cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP) phosphate or cyclic Guanosine Monophosphate (cGMP). In one of the pioneering studies on in vitro stimulation of sperm motility, Shen (1991) demonstrated that Pentoxifylline (PTX) increases motility (velocit y) of ejaculated human spermertozoa both in in vitro aesthenozoospermic samples in oral therapy. Related studies have shown that PTX added in sperm suspensions increases sperm motion within 10 days with the motility characteristics persisting

Writing as Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Writing as Art - Essay Example According to Mills (1), a writer develops words, makes them true, emphasize, and illuminate the words through images. He further argues that there are characteristics that identify writing as an art, and they have a significant impact on the readers and the writers; these features include world, story, image, and voice. Writing campaigns is one of methods through which writers, activists, and lobbyists protest social problems. Writing campaigns have been in use for many years. Some have been effective while others have not. However, they serve the same purpose of educating and spreading the message, they want done. The paper will discuss writing as art, and the way writing campaign has used to protest social problems. Writing as Art Writers develop words, make them true, emphasize, and illuminate the words through images. Through the voices, they hold the reader’s attention and remind them of the changing tones of speech. Through the stories heard and told, they indicate the w ay the writer’s thoughts are molded by the narrative, how the writer shapes the lives and thoughts of others and their lives. There are features that are used to identify writing as a form of art, and they have a strong impact on the readers and writers. ... Writing as art assists us to determine the images, stories, worlds, and voices individuals inhibit and which inhabit writers, in other words, the acquired culture (Mills 2). Writing in its creative form is not limited to the voice of one principal authority, or to a type of address by a single speaker, for instance, a middle-class white educated British-American. Currently, individuals from various ethnic and racial backgrounds, representing differences of sexuality, gender, and age, practice writing as an art. The readers and the audiences actively look for all these voices whose numbers indicate the same range of experience and culture (Mills 4). The idea of the writer’s voice finding a voice indicates the writer’s position towards all the creative characteristics of writing as art including those of the voice. The voice is generated by the recurrent places, qualities and aspects of the world being represented, images chosen to highlight, what the writer writes about, and the story-like events or story that hold a special fascination to the writer. The choice of words relies more on what the writer thinks on the undercurrents and currents of speech. Creative language entails what individuals say, and the manner they speak with themselves and to each other, and this creates a rich supply of spoken rhythms. From each single voice are many voices, some are calm and angry, some perverse and moral, others overheard and native. An important skill to the writer is learning the virtue of listening to the voices, those within them and those that surround them, and those of the characters in the play or the story (Mills 7). It is important to note that all the writing is affected by the

The Role of the Government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Role of the Government - Essay Example In 2010, the US government has made affordable care Act. In this plan, the government has made comprehensive reforms for health care which will be implemented for four years. Some of these reforms include 50% discount for the senior citizens on buying the medicine, the age of young adults is increased to 26 years, and they are eligible for their parent’s medical plan up to this age. Around 4 million businesses that are small in scale, tax credit is eligible for them so that they can provide medical benefits for their employees (Healthcare, 2012). The US government, healthcare providers, and the employers should work hard to make sure that the health care is accessible to every person. Incentive should be given to the providers so that health services are expanded (Pomerance, 2011). Pomerance, D. (2011). Access to Healthcare: The Right of the People. Retrieved January 4, 2012, from www.healthmgttech.com:

Apple Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Apple - Case Study Example The Apple’s product lines mainly include iPod and iTunes, desktop and laptop computers, the revolutionary iPad and iPhone, and the OS X operating system. The company frequently comes up with innovations in its product designs. The Apple follows its traditional Macintosh marketing strategy and always gives specific focus on innovative promotional efforts. Although these four elements were crucial to Apple’s success, frequent product innovations have greatly assisted the company to outsmart its competitors in no time. The organization’s potential competitive strategy significantly aided the management to survive many contingencies, including 2008 global financial crisis. 2. Well developed product differentiation approach and industry leading innovation are the core elements of Apple’s strategy on computers, personal media players, and smartphones. Although Apple’s major portion of revenues is generated from non computer products, the company still con siders computers as its core business segment. The differentiation strategy has greatly assisted Apple to attain a competitive position in the personal computer industry. For instance, referring to Marino and Gamble (2010), innovative features like a proprietary operating system and strong graphics-handling techniques benefited Apple to differentiate its Macs from PCs. In addition, Apple offered a variety of computer models in various configurations. Apple practices skimming pricing policy in personal media player industry with intent to capture consumer surplus. According to Marino and Gamble (2010), Apple priced $399 for the iPod when the company launched the product for the first time and the Apple management eventually reduced the price over time. This pricing strategy was greatly beneficial for the company to establish its iPod products in the market. The iPhone 3G was a great product innovation of Apple. The company frequently diversifies its smartphone features also. While an alyzing the smart phone sector, it is obvious that Apple’s product innovation and differentiation strategies have significantly contributed to its market competitiveness. 3. Potential Resource Strengths and Competitive Capabilities While analyzing the Apple computers, the global presence is identified as one of the competitive strengths of the company. Since the organization has strong brand image, Apple computers are well recognized in the market. Synergies of combined operation assist the company to reduce operating costs and to improve value chain operations. Evidently, strong media relation and innovativeness are other potential strengths of Apple. Potential resource weakness and competitive deficiencies Undoubtedly, low returns represent a potential resource weakness of Apple computers. Market surveys indicate that many people hesitate to purchase Apple computer because of the company’s premium pricing. Furthermore, the firm increasingly depends on others for the key components. Potential market opportunities Increasing demand for wireless products seems to be a potential opportunity for Apple computers since the company already has a range of products in this area. Similarly, Apple’s new digital platform (integrating iTunes video content into television screens and portable devices) would enhance its growth in computer industry. Potential external threats to Apple’s future profitability Strong competition raises a series of potential challenges to